Biocatalytic textiles have emerged as a new class of functional materials that merge the catalytic precision of enzymes with the structural and mechanical advantages of textiles. Their combination of high surface area, flexibility, low pressure drop, and durability enables efficient mass transfer and stable catalytic performance, positioning them as promising candidates for sustainable environmental purification technologies. This review provides an overview of the progress, opportunities, and challenges associated with biocatalytic textiles for water purification and carbon dixoide (CO2) capture application. Starting with fundamental aspects of enzymes and enzyme immobilization strategies that underpin the design and performance of biocatalytic textiles, this report summarizes the applications of biocatalytic textiles in the removal of dyes, pharmaceuticals, pesticides, phenolic compounds and bacteria from contaminated water, demonstrating their potential for addressing key issues in wastewater treatment. Additionally, the emerging use of biocatalytic textiles for CO2 capture is explored as a pathway toward carbon mitigation and efficient carbon management strategies. The review concludes with limitations and future research directions aimed at robust, durable, and industrially viable biocatalytic textile systems for catalytic water and air purification.

One way of charting the way forward is to research potentials to educate through various options that today’s technology can offer. Virtual reality (VR) using 3D glasses is one example and we know from earlier research that learning in this way is experienced as joyful by students. In a European perspective, the use of technology in a pedagogical way to stimulate learning needs attention. Despite fairly common prerequisites in Europe, it is not obvious how technology can be used to not only be joyful but also enhance learning and develop the learning environment. In this specific study, the safe environment in a virtual reality lab (Tatli & Ayas, 2010) offers an alternative to the real physical lab when students in textile education are studying inkjet printing. The aim is to gain knowledge about how the learning of the inkjet printing process takes place in the traditional physical lab and in virtual reality lab. The research questions are: 

• What characterizes the learning conditions in a lab and VR environment respectively?
• What characterizes the learning through physical lab work and in VR respectively?
• What improvements do the students suggest for the VR app?
• What happens to learning when lab and VR experiences are combined in different sequences?

Closely related to the security that virtual environments offer is the joy that arises (De Vries & May, 2019; Makransky et al. 2019), for example, from students being able to repeat stages in a process as long as they want and need without risking destroying anything. The positive feelings increase students’ confidence in their own ability (Sarmouk et al., 2019) and thereby, motivation for learning is strengthened. Not least intrinsic motivation, based on Self Determination Theory, meaning that the driving force comes from the students themselves instead of, for example, parents or teachers, is desirable. The result in a study by Makransky et al. (2019) show that the use of VR provides increased internal motivation. Comparing VR and physical labs, the conclusion in most studies is drawn that VR constitutes a valuable complement to the physical lab (see for example Sarmouk et al., 2019; Vahdadikhaki et al., 2024). However, there are researchers claiming that VR labs in some cases are more effective than physical labs (Chan et al., 2021). Training in VR as preparation for students to handle the real lab better contributes to both cognitive and emotional aspects meaning that they increase their self-confidence (Sarmouk et al., 2019). Other researchers, for example Moozeh et al. (2020) show that VR is not only preparing students but also gives them an opportunity to integrate and apply knowledge from the physical lab in the VR context. Apart from the research showing that safety, joy and motivation through VR stimulate students' learning, there are no clear results about what characterizes learning in the virtual environment. Learning in areas such as processes, concepts, practical skills and analytical skills can according to some studies (for example Garcia Estrada & Prasolova-Førland, 2022) be facilitated by VR while other studies (for example Sarmouk et al., 2019) show that students can become accustomed to using the equipment through VR. However, it is not only the design of the specific VR app that is essential for learning. In addition, factors such as pursuit of realism (Vahdadikhaki et al., 2024), the implementation in terms of, for example, instructions, support (Chan et al., 2021) and adaptation to students' individual needs (Yang et al., 2023) also matters for learning.

Method

Descriptive phenomenology and specifically the approach Reflective Lifeworld Research (RLR) (Dahlberg et al., 2008; Giorgi, 1997) has been used to study how the learning of the inkjet printing process takes place in the traditional physical lab and in virtual reality lab respectively. The current phenomena, i.e. those that manifest themselves, are both learning that takes place in a physical lab and learning that takes place in VR. Within descriptive phenomenology, only basic theories on which phenomenology generally rests, for example life-world theory (Husserl, 1970/1936) are used. It is a conscious choice to avoid other theories with the aim of reinforcing that the lived experiences of the participants must be central in the search for new knowledge. Data collection was conducted via five focus group interviews with students, four of them at bachelor’s level and one group at master's level, a total of 12 participants. The participants were expected to experience learning through both lab and VR and therefore were offered both for ethical reasons. Informed consent had been collected previously. Lab and VR were scheduled in different orders and interviews at different times enabled variations in the participants' experiences. To avoid that the learning VR experience was prevented by novice equipment issues, all participants had an opportunity to try VR glasses with Demo app before using the specific app. In phenomenological research, many different contexts and variations are desirable in the data and in this study, variation was offered through schedule, different study levels, gender and ages. The variations enable examination of what, despite all the differences, are common characteristic features of the phenomena (Dahlberg et al., 2008). The analysis was conducted in several different steps, all of which are characterized by openness and reflection so that the researcher's previous knowledge of the phenomenon is bridled during the process (Dahlberg et al., 2008). After reading the data, meaning-bearing units, which can consist of words, sentences or whole paragraphs are marked (van Manen, 2014). Patterns, called clusters are then sought among the units so that the meaning of the phenomenon can eventually be formulated as a new whole on an abstract level.

Expected Outcomes

The result shows that learning in both physical and VR lab evoke emotions. The students experience joy in both labs but express their motivation more clearly based on the experience of using VR glasses. The physical lab is experienced as more serious based on all safety instructions, protective clothing and more. The VR lab is more playful and because mistakes have no consequences, a kind of trial-and-error behavior develops. The instructions in the physical lab were more detailed and were perceived as very clear and easy to follow. In addition, there was the possibility to always ask a teacher. In VR, the instructions were not that specific and disappeared after a while.The students also felt that they were left to fend for themselves without having anyone to ask. In VR lab, different parts of the process can be practiced again and again without any material being destroyed, which offers students opportunities for extensive training that might be too costly in physical labs. An advantage of the physical lab is that the students experienced the process with many different senses. They understood how the ink worked by observing how particles got stuck in the filter and by handling the ink with their own hands. Learning differs in the various labs and aspects such as being able to use one's senses are difficult to achieve via VR, but for example the perceived uncertainty through unclear instructions could be remedied without major efforts. There is thus good potential for learning through the virtual lab and regardless of order, students need both labs as they offer different kinds of learning.

Flavin mononucleotide (biobased flavin), widely known as FMN, possesses intrinsic fluorescence characteristics. This study presents a sustainable approach for fabricating color-changing intensified light-emitting textiles using the natural compound FMN via digital printing technologies such as inkjet and chromojet. The FMN based ink formulation was prepared at 5 different concentrations using water and glycerol-based systems and printed on cotton duck white (CD), mercerized cotton (MC), and polyester (PET) textile woven samples. After characterizing the printing inks (viscosity and surface tension), the photophysical and physicochemical properties of the printed textiles were investigated using FTIR, UV/visible spectrophotometry, and fluorimetry. Furthermore, photodegradation properties were studied after irradiation under UV (370 nm) and visible (white) light. Two prominent absorption peaks were observed at around 370 nm and 450 nm on K/S spectral curves because of the functionalization of FMN on the textiles via digital printing along with the highest fluorescence intensities obtained for cotton textiles. Before light irradiation, the printed textiles exhibited greenish-yellow fluorescence at 535 nm for excitation at 370 nm. The fluorescence intensity varied as a function of the FMN concentration and the solvent system (water/glycerol). With 0.8 and 1% of FMN, the fluorescence of the printed textiles persisted even after prolonged light irradiation; however, the fluorescence color shifted from greenish-yellow color to turquoise blue then to white, with the fluorescence quantum efficiency values (φ) increasing from 0.1 to a value as high as 1. Photodegradation products of the FMN with varying fluorescence wavelengths and intensities would explain the results. Thus, a color-changing light-emitting fluorescent textile was obtained after prolonged light irradiation of textile samples printed using biobased flavin. Furthermore, multifunctional properties such as antibacterial properties against E. coli were observed only for the printed cotton textile while increased ultraviolet protection was observed for both cotton and polyester printed fabrics for the high concentration of FMN water-based and glycerol-based formulations. The evaluation of fluorescence properties using digital printing techniques aimed to provide more sustainable solutions, both in terms of minimum use of biobased dye and obtaining the maximum yield.

Flavin mononucleotide (FMN) derived from Vitamin B2, a bio-based fluorescent water-soluble molecule with visible yellow-green fluorescence, has been used in the scope of producing photoluminescent and glow-in-the-dark patterned polyester (PET) nonwoven panels. Since the FMN molecule cannot diffuse inside the PET fiber, screen printing, coating, and padding methods were used in an attempt to immobilize FMN molecules at the PET fiber surface of a nonwoven, using various biopolymers such as gelatin and sodium alginate as well as a water-based commercial polyacrylate. In parallel, air atmospheric plasma activation of PET nonwoven was carried for improved spreading and adhesion of FMN bearing biopolymer/polymer mixture. Effectively, the plasma treatment yielded a more hydrophilic PET nonwoven, reduction in wettability, and surface roughness of the plasma treated fiber with reduced water contact angle and increased capillary uptake were observed. The standard techniques of morphological properties were explored by a scanning electron microscope (SEM) and atomic force microscopy (AFM). Films combining each biopolymer and FMN were formed on PS (polystyrene) Petri-dishes. However, only the gelatin and polyacrylate allowed the yellow-green fluorescence of FMN molecule to be maintained on the film and PET fabric (seen under ultraviolet (UV) light). No yellow-green fluorescence of FMN was observed with sodium alginate. Thus, when the plasma-activated PET was coated with the gelatin mixture or polyacrylate bearing FMN, the intense photoluminescent yellow-green glowing polyester nonwoven panel was obtained in the presence of UV light (370 nm). Screen printing of FMN using a gelatin mixture was possible. The biopolymer exhibited appropriate viscosity and rheological behavior, thus creating a glow-in-the-dark pattern on the polyester nonwoven, with the possibility of one expression in daylight and another in darkness (in presence of UV light). A bio-based natural product such as FMN is potentially an interesting photoluminescent molecule with which textile surface pattern designers may create light-emitting textiles and interesting aesthetic expressions.

Bioluminescent living organisms emit light through a specific biocatalyzed reaction involving a luciferin substrate and a luciferase enzyme. The present work investigated the possibility of creating optimal luminescence by immobilization of one or both the enzymes Luciferase (Luc) and FMN reductase (Red) involved in a bioluminescent bacterial system onto a plasma-activated microfibrous PET nonwoven. Parameters affecting the catalytic activity and efficiency of the bacterial system in aqueous medium were determined by luminescence intensity measurements using a luminometer. Two types of plasma, air atmospheric plasma (ATMP) and cold remote plasma (CRPNO) treatment, were used to activate the PET nonwoven. Further, one or both enzyme(s) were immobilized using a physical adsorption technique, without or with the use of natural biopolymers (gelatin and starch) and bovine serum albumin-BSA protein, to improve enzyme stability and activity. Coimmobilization of both Red and Luc enzymes on the CRPNO plasma-activated nonwoven in the presence of BSA led to the maximum luminescence. As high as 60,000 RLU equivalent to that of an LED light used for calibration was observed and showed stable intensity up to 6 min. Fiber surface analysis was tested using wettability tests (water contact angle and capillary uptake), while scanning electron microscopy, atomic force microscopy, and electron spectroscopy for chemical analysis showed changes in fiber surface morphology and chemical functional groups. A considerable increase in “N” atom content after coimmobilization of enzymes in the presence of BSA was detected. This study is the first successful attempt to use a biomimetic strategy for immobilization of enzymes involved in bacterial luminescence on a plasma-activated microfibrous nonwoven in an attempt to attain bioluminescent materials.

Nature is the most exquisite thing around us with the existence of living organisms exhibiting different phenomena such as water repel/ency, touch sensitive plant and chameleon skin. Some of these phenomena inspired scientists to explore and design smart fabrics biomimicking the behaviour or pattern in living organisms. Bioluminescence is one such phenomenon where-in different living organisms such as firefly, jelly fish and crustaceans have the ability to impart visible light of specific wavelength, by enzyme catalysed reactions. Existence and study of such light emitting living organisms have been carried out, and harnessing these reactions has already transformed significant areas of medical field and clinical diagnosis, but research work on transforming this into living light is limited. In the present study, luminous bacterial system was investigated to assess and detect the bioluminescence behaviour onto the textile material. In the Luminous bacterial system, in vivo biochemical mecha­nism involves two different enzymes as well as different substrate components. Emission of light due to in vivo luminous bacterial reaction mechanism is seen in visible region. For in vitro reaction mechanism study, physical adsorption technique was used to graft both enzymes on plasma activated PET nonwoven textile and when substrates were introduced manually during the analysis, the biochemical reaction leading to light production occured. A Luminometer equipment was used to determine the light intensity in terms of Relative light units (RLU). The measurement results were obtained for nonwoven plasma treated PET with enzyme and substrate addition at different concentration and RLU value was obtained. The analysis data revealed that light intensity in RLU could be recorded by introducing both the enzymes and substrates on textile material, however intensive research is required in order to observe emitted light through the naked eye. The research study will help to attain

Flavins are ubiquitous in nature and participate in various biochemical reactions mainly in the form of coenzyme Flavin mononucleotide (FMN) or as precursor such as Riboflavin (RF). Both flavins, RF and FMN are multifunctional bio-based molecules yielding yellow coloration and exhibit photoluminescence, UV protection, and redox properties. The aim of the present research study was to investigate the diffusion method as a technique to obtain photoluminescent cellulosic fabric using multifunctional RF and FMN. The photoluminescent moiety RF and FMN exhibited three maximum absorbance peaks at about 270 nm, 370 nm and 446 nm in aqueous solution at pH 7. The solutions of RF and FMN with concentration 4% and 20% (owf) at pH 7 were prepared and used in diffusion method for cellulosic fabric dyeing. The study involved the determination of color performance and evaluation of luminescence property of the dyed fabric using UV-visible spectrophotometer and photoluminescence spectroscopy, respectively. Under monochromatic UV lamp exposure emitting at 370 nm, the dyed fabric showed an intense emission of greenish yellow color, which was later confirmed by the intense photoluminescence observed at a wavelength of about 570 nm. The study demonstrates the theoretical evaluation of quantum efficiency (φ) obtaining maximum φ value of 0.28. Higher color strength value and improved wash fastness were obtained by treatment with different biobased mordants such as tannic acid and citric acid as well as calcium chloride for both RF and FMN. Additionally, ultraviolet (UV) protection ability for both RF and FMN dyed fabric were determined and showed UPF factor of 50+ and 35 respectively. The work allowed us to explore the photoluminescence property of riboflavin and Flavin mononucleotide for its application in the field of textiles as a new scope of producing photoluminescent textile along with multifunctional properties such as coloration and UV protection.

Riboflavin derivative such as Flavin mononucleotide possesses distinctive biological and physicochemical properties such as photosensitivity, redox activity and fluorescence. Flavin mononucleotide widely known as FMN is a biomolecule having molecular formula as C₁₇H₂₀N₄NaO₉P and is produced from biobased riboflavin by enzymatic reaction in living organisms. In contrast to riboflavin which is sparingly soluble in water, FMN is highly water soluble due to the presence of an ionic phosphate group. The presence of isoalloxazine ring in FMN is responsible for its properties such as UV absorption and fluorescence. This study evaluates the potential use of Flavin mononucleotide (FMN) for production of photoluminescent textile.

Luminescent textiles are being increasingly used in apparel and sportswear aswell as in buildings, agriculture and automotives, for safety alert or forillumination or as a design feature[1]. Till now these luminescent textiles havebeen based on technologies such as LED, luminescent particles (rare earthmetals and metal oxides), which are not so eco‐friendly[2].Bio‐inspired strategies can provide efficient methods to achieve eco friendlybioluminescent textiles. Research projects have explored ways which aremainly based on culture of bioluminescent algae[3] or bacteria on textiles.Here we present another approach to achieve bioluminesence using biobasedproducts from various living organisms such as fireflies, fungi, earthwormsthat are found in land and in jelly fishes, shrimps, dinoflagellates, corals inmarine environment [4]. In order to mimic the luminescence effect seen innature, reaction mechanisms in various bioluminescent living organisms arestudied and the components or molecules responsible for luminescence areidentified [5‐10]. Most of the time, these involve enzymatic reactions.However the main challenge is to reproduce the bioluminescent mechanismand to adapt it to new materials which can yield some eco efficient bioinspired luminescent textiles.