This research examines mechanical finishing and digital printing methods for imparting antibacterial properties to denim fabrics. It evaluates the use of plant-based nanoemulsions, which are nontoxic and environmentally friendly, as alternatives to synthetic antimicrobial agents. This finishing technique enhances the functional properties of denim fabrics, enabling them to be used for longer periods without requiring frequent washing. Additionally, it prevents the formation of odor and microbial growth during consumer use. Two types of nanoemulsions, namely, Karanja and Shankapushpi, were derived from plant-based herbs combined with coconut oil and curry leaves. The nanoemulsions were characterized for their thermal stability, particle size, and percentage add-on. The finished denim fabrics were assessed for their antimicrobial properties using Gram-positive bacteria (Staphylococcus aureus) and Gram-negative bacteria (Escherichia coli). Furthermore, the durability and skin safety of the finished fabrics were tested. The antimicrobial efficacy of Karanja nanoemulsion before washing was 99.73% (S. aureus) and 99.74% (E. coli), and for Shankapushpi, it was 99.77% (S. aureus) and 99.73% (E. coli). For digitally printed denim, no increase in bacterial growth was observed after 24 h. After washing, only a marginal reduction in the antibacterial efficacy (>99.2%) of the finished denim fabrics was observed, demonstrating the durability of the finish. In vitro cytotoxicity assessments demonstrated a cell viability of >70%, indicating acceptable cytotoxicity of the denim fabric and safety on the skin. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR) analysis revealed the presence of a triple-bond carbon at 2105 cm–1 and fatty acids at 3006 cm–1 in both the nanoemulsions, Karanja and Shankapushpi, which are responsible for the antimicrobial property. This research suggests that denim fabrics can be treated with durable antibacterial properties using sustainable, environmentally friendly, and biocompatible plant-based herbal nanoemulsions. The digital printing method that uses fewer resources demonstrated high precision in applying the nanoemulsion to the fabric and proved more efficient than mechanical methods. This research introduces innovative approaches to enhance denim fabrics by preventing unpleasant odors from microbial growth, disinfecting surfaces, and reducing the frequency of washing. These methodologies employ plant-based herbal treatments for the first time to enhance denim functionality, highlighting potential applications in sportswear and athleisure that prioritize freshness, durability, and sustainability. © 2026 The Authors. Published by American Chemical Society

The textile industry is confronted with significant sustainability challenges, particularly in recycling post-consumer cellulosic materials while preserving quality. Achieving an effective blend of a higher proportion of recycled fibres with pristine cellulosic fibres is essential for improving the quality and performance of textile products while reducing environmental impact. This research seeks to utilize machine learning techniques to optimize the blending process, ensuring that the resulting yarns adhere to industry standards.

This study adopts a data-centric approach, employing machine learning algorithms to analyse the properties of both recycled and pristine cellulosic fibres. Key attributes such as fibre length, strength, and fineness are derived from comprehensive datasets. Various regression models, including Random Forest and Gradient Boosting, are trained to predict the optimal blending ratios that produce desirable yarn characteristics. Hyperparameter tuning is performed to enhance model accuracy, and cross-validation techniques are used to ensure robustness.

The expected outcome is a predictive model that accurately forecasts the properties of blended fibres, aiding in the development of high-quality yarns. This research is innovative in its application of machine learning to the textile recycling process, offering a systematic framework for optimizing fibre blends based on empirical data. Future work will involve validating the model predictions against practical lab results to further refine the blending process. Additionally, the integration of SHAP (SHapley Additive exPlanations) analysis will be explored to improve interpretability and provide insights into feature contributions, guiding future research directions.

As the textile industry faces growing challenges related to sustainability, recycled fiber blending for making new yarns has emerged as a key area for reducing environmental impacts. This study aims to investigate the role of fiber length features in predicting the quality of blended yarns, particularly focusing on natural-based fiber blends such as recycled cotton (ReCo) and Lyocell. Machine learning models, including Random Forest, Gradient Boosting, and Support Vector Regression, alongside linear and polynomial regressions, are used to predict fiber properties based on empirical data. The results show fiber length features from the Staple Diagram and Fibrogram as the most significant factors. Hyperparameter tuning has enhanced model accuracy, especially for Random Forest and Gradient Boosting, showing significant reductions in error metrics. Cross-validation is performed to ensure the reliability of the models and prevent overfitting during the predictive analysis of fiber length features. Shapley Additive Explanations (SHAP) analysis reveals that specific fiber length ranges have the most influence on model predictions, highlighting their importance in optimizing blended yarn properties. These findings contribute to advancing sustainable textile production through data-driven approaches and textile fiber blend optimization. 

This study investigates the potential use of digital inkjet printing to produce uniform-colored textiles comparable to those dyed conventionally. The color uniformity of inkjet-printed block pattern using combined vacuum plasma treatment and inkjet printing of nano-pigment ink is studied. The surface properties of the plasma treated textiles were characterized using scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and absorption. The color performances, color uniformity and fastness properties of printed textiles were evaluated by color measurement, wash fastness, and abrasion tests respectively. The results showed that plasma treatment significantly enhances the color performance of printed polyethylene terephthalate (PET) and polyamide 66 (PA). The color strength increases with printing passes and the most significant enhancement was with two printing passes, thereafter it reaches saturation. It was found that plasma-treated fabrics absorbed the ink faster, therefore the colorants concentrated at the textile surface. Furthermore, the inks printed on plasma-treated samples showed better wash fastness and abrasion property for both PET and PA fabrics. Moreover, the color uniformity results showed that ΔECMC is distributed between 0.25 and 0.5 over the uniform-colored surface. This study demonstrates the feasibility of using resource-efficient textile processes, such as plasma treatment and inkjet printing, to produce uniform-colored textiles as alternative to conventional dyeing methods. 

The use of immobilized enzymes in enhancing the biodegradability of cotton textiles is of great interest for sustainable textile waste management. Understanding how enzyme activity influences biodegradation rates is crucial for optimizing textile disposal strategies. This study aims to assess the impact of enzyme immobilization on the biodegradability of cotton fabrics, compared to microcrystalline cellulose and cotton treated with both active and inactivated enzymes. Biodegradability was evaluated by measuring CO₂ production over 75 days when the fabrics were buried in soil, as a proxy for microbial degradation. The study compared untreated cotton, cotton treated with immobilized enzymes, cotton with inactivated enzymes (via thermal treatment), and microcrystalline cellulose as reference. CO₂ emissions were monitored to quantify the biodegradation levels in each sample. The results indicated that microcrystalline cellulose exhibited the lowest biodegradability, with significantly lower CO₂ production. Among the cotton samples, the highest biodegradability was observed in the fabric treated with immobilized enzymes that had been inactivated by heat. This was followed by the cotton treated with active immobilized enzymes, while untreated cotton exhibited the lowest biodegradability of all the cotton samples. Although enzyme immobilization can enhance the stability and sustainability of degradation processes, thermal inactivation of enzymes unexpectedly increased biodegradation rates in cotton fabrics. This suggests that not only enzymes but others, such as structural changes in the cotton fibers, may play a role in facilitating biodegradation. Further research is needed increasing time and to clarify the mechanisms involved and optimize immobilization techniques for textile waste management.

The emergence of multi-resistant bacteria, untreatable with conventional medicines, is a significant global health concern. This study proposes a unique solution to this problem by digitally inkjet printing biomaterials bound with silver nanoparticles (NP) on cotton textiles. The silver nanoparticles, known for their effective antimicrobial properties, are stabilized, and made biocompatible by the enzymes. The use of digital inkjet printing allows for precise application of these NP-biomaterial conjugates, ensuring uniform coverage and optimal performance. This approach aims to prevent the spread of antimicrobial-resistant bacteria through cotton textiles in medical care environments, enhancing patient safety. The inkjet printing technology used in this study offers high-resolution patterning, enabling the creation of complex designs with multiple materials. This flexibility allows for the development of textiles with varying antimicrobial properties, tailored to specific applications in the medical field. Furthermore, the use of cotton, a natural and breathable material, ensures the comfort and safety of patients, making it an ideal choice for this application.

This chapter provides a comprehensive overview of wet processing techniques in the textile industry, emphasizing sustainability as a core theme. Wet processing encompasses a series of chemical and mechanical treatments that are designed to enhance fabric performance, aesthetics, and usability while addressing the industry's growing responsibility to minimize environmental impacts. The chapter is structured into distinct sections, each highlighting the processes, machinery, and sustainable practices that define modern textile finishing. Each section highlights emerging and alternative technologies along with helpful hints on innovation and marketing opportunities. 

The introduction outlines the scope and importance of wet processing, with a focus on the integration of sustainable technologies and eco-friendly practices in transforming raw textiles into functional and high-quality materials. The pre-treatment section discusses key preparatory steps, including desizing, scouring, and bleaching, and explores sustainable alternatives such as enzyme-based treatments and plasma treatments. The dyeing section examines the application of colour through traditional and innovative methods like foam and spray dyeing. The focus is on reducing resource consumption with approaches like plasma-enhanced dyeing and dyebath reuse. In the printing section, techniques such as screen, rotary, and digital printing are explored, emphasizing sustainable practices like reducing chemical waste through precision and automation. The finishing segment highlights mechanical finishes like compacting, brushing, sanforizing and heat-setting, along with chemical finishes such as water-repellence, flame retardants, anti-microbial properties and decorative denim washing. A focus is placed on using bio-based finishing agents and energy-efficient machinery to align with sustainability goals while enhancing fabric usability.

The structure of this chapter integrates theoretical concepts with industrial practices, offering a balance of scientific understanding and practical application. By the end of this chapter, readers will gain a holistic understanding of wet processing, its impact on textile properties, and its role in meeting industry and consumer expectations.

Lysozyme was inkjet printed on two different polyester fabrics considering several challenges of printing enzymes on synthetic fabric surfaces. Wettability of both the fabrics were improved by alkaline pre-treatment resulting reduction in water contact angle to 60±2 from 95°±3 and to 80°±2 from 115°±2 for thinner and coarser fabric respectively. Activity of lysozyme in the prepared ink was 9240±34 units/ml and reduced to 5946±23 units/ml as of collected after jetting process (before printing on fabric). The formulated ink was effectively inkjet printed on alkali treated polyester fabric for antimicrobial applications. Retention of higher activity of the printed fabric requires further studies on enzyme-fibre binding mechanisms and understanding protein orientation on fabric surface after printing

This thesis explores the possibilities of printing enzymes using resource-efficient technologies to promote the binding of other proteins and biomaterials on synthetic textiles. This strategy can be used to develop advanced textiles for applications, for example, in antimicrobial, drug delivery and biosensing. Digital inkjet printing was combined with enzyme technology to ensure minimum use of water, chemicals and energy in textile manufacturing processes.  

Inks containing two enzymes, lysozyme and tyrosinase, were formulated by adjusting several rheological and ionic properties. The activity of these enzymes was optimised while being printed through two different industrial grade piezoelectric printheads. The theoretical printability of the prepared inks was calculated. The effect of printhead temperature and number of printing passes on the activity was evaluated. Polyester (polyethylene terephthalate) and polyamide-6,6 were pre-treated through several techniques to understand their effect on enzyme adhesion, binding and activity retention. Tyrosinase was used to bind lysozyme on plasma activated polyamide-6,6 surface. The effects of printing these two enzymes in various sequences, i.e. tyrosinase before lysozyme and vice-versa on binding stability and activity, were studied. Influence of the printing process on enzyme kinetics was evaluated. Ability to store and reuse printed fabrics was also studied.  

Lysozyme and tyrosinase containing inks showed activity retention of 85% and 60%, respectively. Activity of lysozyme containing ink was optimum at 10–15 mPa.s when glycerol was used as a viscosity modifier. However, the optimum viscosity for tyrosinase containing ink was at 6–9 mPa.s, and carboxymethyl cellulose was found to be the most favourable modifier. For both inks, a surfactant amount below the critical micelle concentration was considered to be the most effective for printing. Among the studied fabric pre-treatment methods (alkaline, cutinase and plasma), it was found that the activity and stability of the enzyme were dependent on the nature of the pretreatment processes, which can be beneficial for different application areas, e.g. drug release and bio-sensing. Upon printing both inks on a plasma treated polyamide-6,6, tyrosinase was able to catalyse lysozyme protein to bind it on fabric. A maximum of 68% lytic activity was retained by lysozyme when it was printed after tyrosinase. This fabric showed inhibition of bacterial growth and retained almost half of its initial activity when cold stored for a month.