Volatile fatty acids (VFAs) appear to be an economical carbon feedstock for the cost-effective production of polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHAs). The use of VFAs, however, could impose a drawback of substrate inhibition at high concentrations, resulting in low microbial PHA productivity in batch cultivations. In this regard, retaining high cell density using immersed membrane bioreactor (iMBR) in a (semi-) continuous process could enhance production yields. In this study, an iMBR with a flat-sheet membrane was applied for semi-continuous cultivation and recovery of Cupriavidus necator in a bench-scale bioreactor using VFAs as the sole carbon source. The cultivation was prolonged up to 128 h under an interval feed of 5 g/L VFAs at a dilution rate of 0.15 (d−1), yielding a maximum biomass and PHA production of 6.6 and 2.8 g/L, respectively. Potato liquor and apple pomace-based VFAs with a total concentration of 8.8 g/L were also successfully used in the iMBR, rendering the highest PHA content of 1.3 g/L after 128 h of cultivation. The PHAs obtained from both synthetic and real VFA effluents were affirmed to be poly(3-hydroxybutyrate-co-3-hydroxyvalerate) with a crystallinity degree of 23.8 and 9.6%, respectively. The application of iMBR could open an opportunity for semi-continuous production of PHA, increasing the feasibility of upscaling PHA production using waste-based VFAs. 

Fungal biomass (FB), a by-product of the fermentation processes produced in large volumes, is a promising biomaterial that can be incorporated into poly(lactic acid) (PLA) to develop enhanced biocomposites that fully comply with the biobased circular economy concept. The PLA/FB composites, with the addition of triethyl citrate (TEC) as a biobased plasticizer, were fabricated by a microcompounder at 150 °C followed by injection molding. The effects of FB (10 and 20 wt %) and TEC (5, 10, and 15 wt %) contents on the mechanical, thermal and surface properties of the biocomposites were analyzed by several techniques. The PLA/FB/TEC composites showed a rough surface in their fracture section. A progressive decrease in tensile strength and Young’s modulus was observed with increasing FB and TEC, while elongation at break and impact strength started to increase. The neat PLA and biocomposite containing 10% FB and 15% TEC exhibited the lowest (3.84%) and highest (224%) elongation at break, respectively. For all blends containing FB, the glass transition, crystallization and melting temperatures were shifted toward lower values compared to the neat PLA. The incorporation of FB to PLA thus offers the possibility to overcome one of the main drawbacks of PLA, which is brittleness.

The existing recycling methods of PHA-based material are ineffective in terms of increasing resource efficiency and the production of high value end-of-life products. Therefore, in this study, a novel approach of acidogenic fermentation was proposed to recycle PHB-based composites reinforced with natural fibers such as cellulose, chitin, chitosan, orange waste, sawdust, soy protein, and starch. The inclusion of cellulose, chitosan, and sawdust improved the impact properties of the composites while other fillers had various effects on the mechanical properties. These three composites and neat PHB were subsequently subjected to biological degradation via acidogenic digestion to determine the possibility of converting PHB-based composites into volatile fatty acids (VFAs). Two different pH levels of 6 and 10 were applied to assess the effect of pH on the bioconversion and inhibition of the methanogenesis. The results showed promising PHB degradation, contributing to considerable VFA production of 2.5 g/L at pH 6 after 47 days. At pH 6, the presence of the natural fibers in the biocomposites promoted the degradation rate. On the contrary, pH 10 proved to be more suitable for the degradation of the fibers. The VFA which is produced can be recirculated into PHB production, fitting with the concept of a circulating bioeconomy.

The superior biocompatibility and biodegradability of polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHAs) compared to man-made biopolymers such as polylactic acid promise huge potential in biomedical applications, especially tissue engineering (TE). Textile fiber-based TE scaffolds offer unique opportunities to imitate the anisotropic, hierarchical, or strain-stiffening properties of native tissues. A combination of PHAs' enhanced biocompatibility and fiber-based TE scaffolds could improve the performance of TE scaffolds. However, the PHAs' complex crystallization behavior and the resulting intricate spinning procedures remain a challenge. This review focuses on discussing the developments in PHA melt and wet spinning, their challenges, process parameters, and fiber characteristics while revealing the lack of an in-depth fiber characterization of wet-spun fibers compared to melt-spun filaments, leading to squandered potential in scaffold development. Additionally, the biomedical application of PHAs other than poly-4-hydroxybutyrate is hampered by a failure of polymer purity to meet the requirements for biomedical applications.

Volatile fatty acids (VFAs) have become promising candidates for replacing the conventional expensive carbon sources used to produce polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHAs). Considering the inhibitory effect of VFAs at high concentrations and the influence of VFA mixture composition on bacterial growth and PHA production, a thorough investigation of different cultivation parameters such as VFA concentrations and composition (synthetic and waste-derived VFAs) media, pH, aeration, C/N ratio, and type of nitrogen sources was conducted. Besides common VFAs of acetic, butyric and propionic acids, Cupriavidus necator showed good capability for assimilating longer-chained carboxylate compounds of valeric, isovaleric, isobutyric and caproic acids in feasible concentrations of 2.5–5 g/L. A combination of pH control at 7.0, C/N of 6, and aeration of 1 vvm was found to be the optimal condition for the bacterial growth, yielding a maximum PHA accumulation and PHA yield on biomass of 1.5 g/L and 56%, respectively, regardless of the nitrogen sources. The accumulated PHA was found to be poly(3-hydroxybutyrate-co-3-hydroxyvalerate) with the percentage of hydroxybutyrate in the range 91–96%. Any limitation in the cultivation factors was found to enhance the PHA yield, the promotion of which was a consequence of the reduction in biomass production.

The usage of bioplastics could increase in the future which may cause contamination of the waste streams of conventional plastics. The objective of this study was to investigate if a small amount of biopolymer contaminating conventional polymers would significantly affect mechanical and thermal properties. A starch-based plastic was first compounded by blending plasticised starch with PLA (polylactic acid). This polymer blend was subsequently compounded with HDPE (high density polyethylene), PP (polypropylene) or PET (polyethylene terephthalate) at 0%, 1% and 5% of the biopolymer. The compounds were characterised by tensile tests, Charpy impact tests, DSC (differential scanning calorimetry) and FESEM (field emission scanning electron microscopy). Tests showed that PE and PP were not significantly affected in terms of tensile strength and modulus but the elongation at break showed a strong reduction. PET was, on the other hand, incompatible with the starch-based plastic. Already at 1% contamination, PET had lost most of its impact strength.

High production costs still hamper fast expansion of commercial production of polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHAs). This problem is greatly related to the cultivation medium which accounts for up to 50% of the whole process costs. The aim of this research work was to evaluate the potential of using volatile fatty acids (VFAs), derived from acidogenic fermentation of food waste, as inexpensive carbon sources for the production of PHAs through bacterial cultivation. Bacillus megaterium could assimilate glucose, acetic acid, butyric acid, and caproic acid as single carbon sources in synthetic medium with maximum PHAs production yields of 9–11%, on a cell dry weight basis. Single carbon sources were then replaced by a mixture of synthetic VFAs and by a VFAs-rich stream from the acidogenic fermentation of food waste. After 72 h of cultivation, the VFAs were almost fully consumed by the bacterium in both media and PHAs production yields of 9–10%, on cell dry weight basis, were obtained. The usage of VFAs mixture was found to be beneficial for the bacterial growth that tackled the inhibition of propionic acid, iso-butyric acid, and valeric acid when these volatile fatty acids were used as single carbon sources. The extracted PHAs were revealed to be polyhydroxybutyrate (PHB) by characterization methods of Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) and differential scanning calorimetry (DSC). The obtained results proved the possibility of using VFAs from acidogenic fermentation of food waste as a cheap substrate to reduce the cost of PHAs production. 

The purpose of this study was to investigate the influence of aging on the properties of high-density polyethylene (HDPE) reinforced with multi-wall carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs). Nanocomposites were prepared with nanotubes at 0, 1, 3, and 5 wt%. The long-term durability of the prepared materials was evaluated by thermo-oxidative aging test. Test bodies were aged at 110°C for up to 10 weeks. The nanocomposites were characterized by differential scanning calometry, thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), 13C-NMR, elongation at break, and transmission electron microscopy. The aging mainly occurred on the surface of the samples and the neat HDPE showed a strong yellowing after the aging. A strong reduction in elongation at break was seen. For neat HDPE, the elongation at break was reduced from roughly 1400–25%. When HDPE was reinforced with the nanotubes, the reduction was less dramatic

The fabrication of smart biocomposites from sustainable resources that could replace today’s petroleum-derived polymer materials is a growing field of research. Here, we report preparation of novel biocomposites using nanocellulose networks extracted from food residue (onion skin) and a vegetable oil-based bioresin. The resin was synthesized via the Diels-Alder reaction between furfuryl methacrylate and tung oil at various ratios of the components. The onion-skin-extracted cellulose nanofiber and cellulose nanocrystal networks were then impregnated with the resins yielding biocomposites that exhibited improved mechanical strength and higher storage modulus values. The properties of the resins, as well as biocomposites, were affected by the resin compositions. A 190-240-fold increase in mechanical strength was observed in the cellulose nanofiber (CNF) and cellulose nanocrystal (CNC)-reinforced biocomposites with low furfuryl methacrylate content. The biocomposites exhibited interesting shape-memory behavior with 80-96% shape recovery being observed after 7 creep cycles.

The plastics market is dominated by fossil-based polymers, but their gradual replacement by bioplastics (e.g., polyhydroxyalkanoates) is occurring. However, recycling strategies need to be developed to truly unveil the impact of bioplastics on waste accumulation. This review provides a state of the art of recycling strategies investigated for polyhydroxyalkanoate-based polymers and proposes future research avenues. Research on mechanical and chemical recycling is dominated by the use of extrusion and pyrolysis, respectively, while that on biodegradation of polyhydroxyalkanoates is related to soil and aquatic samples, and to anaerobic digestion towards biogas production. Research gaps exist in the relationships between polymer composition and ease of use of all recycling strategies investigated. This is of utmost importance since it will influence the need for separation at the source. Therefore, research emphasis needs to be given to the area to follow the continuous improvement of the process economics towards widespread commercial production of polyhydroxyalkanoates.

High-density polyethylene (HDPE) was compounded with 3 wt% carbon nanotubes (CNTs). In order to simulate mechanical recycling, both the nanocomposite and neat HDPE were repeatedly extruded and subsequently analysed by tensile tests, Charpy impact strength, differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), oxidation induction time (OIT), Gel Performance Chromatography (GPC), Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR) and TEM After 10 cycles of extrusion, thermal, mechanical, and rheological tests did not reveal any significant degradation. In order to better study the effect of the CNTs, a large number of cycles were simulated by processing the materials for up to 200 min. After 200 min of processing, the neat HDPE was significantly degraded whereas the nanocomposite was almost unaffected.

This work focuses on the development of cross-linked polymer from a highly unsaturated vegetable oil, tung oil (TO) and a bio-based acrylate, furfuryl methacrylate (FMA). The presence of a high degree of unsaturated carbon-carbon bonding in TO makes it a suitable precursor for polymer synthesis. Using this advantage of TO, in this work, we have synthesised a cross-linked polymer from TO and FMA through free radical polymerisation followed by Diels-Alder (DA) reaction. Successful incorporation of both of the raw materials and the two chemical reactions was shown using Fourier-transform infrared (FTIR) and Raman spectroscopy. The development of cross-linked structure was analysed through thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) and dynamic mechanical analysis (DMA).

The present work is focused on the synthesis of bio-based thermoset polymers and their thermo–oxidative ageing and biodegradability. Toward this aim, bio-based thermoset resins with different chemical architectures were synthesized from lactic acid by direct condensation with ethylene glycol, glycerol and pentaerythritol. The resulting branched molecules with chain lengths (n) of three were then end-functionalized with methacrylic anhydride. The chemical structures of the synthesized lactic acid derivatives were confirmed by proton nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy (¹H-NMR) and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FT–IR) before curing. To evaluate the effects of structure on their properties, the samples were investigated by differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) and the tensile testing. The samples went through thermo-oxidative ageing and biodegradation; and their effects were investigated. FT-IR and ¹H-NMR results showed that three different bio-based resins were synthesized using polycondensation and end-functionalization. Lactic acid derivatives showed great potential to be used as matrixes in polymer composites. The glass transition temperature of the cured resins ranged between 44 and 52 °C. Pentaerythritol/lactic acid cured resin had the highest tensile modulus and it was the most thermally stable among all three resins. Degradative processes during ageing of the samples lead to the changes in chemical structures and the variations in Young’s modulus. Microscopic images showed the macro-scale surface degradation on a soil burial test.

Extensive quantities of apple pomace are generated annually but its disposal is still challenging. This study addresses this issue by introducing a new, environmentally-friendly approach for the production of sustainable biomaterials from apple pomace, containing 55.47% free sugars and a water insoluble fraction, containing 29.42 ± 0.44% hemicelluloses, 38.99 ± 0.42% cellulose, and 22.94 ± 0.12% lignin. Solution casting and compression molding were applied to form bio-based films and 3D objects (i.e., fiberboards), respectively. Using glycerol as plasticizer resulted in highly compact films with high tensile strength and low elongation (16.49 ± 2.54 MPa and 10.78 ± 3.19%, respectively). In contrast, naturally occurring sugars in the apple pomace showed stronger plasticizing effect in the films and resulted in a fluffier and connected structure with significantly higher elongation (37.39 ± 10.38% and 55.41 ± 5.38%, respectively). Benefiting from the self-binding capacity of polysaccharides, fiberboards were prepared by compression molding at 100 °C using glycerol or naturally occurring sugars, such as plasticizer. The obtained fiberboards exhibited tensile strength of 3.02–5.79 MPa and elongation of 0.93%–1.56%. Possible applications for apple pomace biomaterials are edible/disposable tableware or food packaging. 

This chapter focuses on mechanical performance of biofibers such as flax, hemp, and sisal and their effect on mechanical performance when they are reinforced in thermoset and thermoplastic polymers. The aim of this chapter is to present an overview of the mechanical characterization of the biofibers and their corresponding composites. The mechanical characterization includes tensile, flexural, impact, compressive, shear, toughness, hardness, brittleness, ductility, creep, fatigue, and dynamic mechanical analyses. Detailed studies of each test have been widely reported and an overview is important to relate the studies. Studies pertaining to the topics are cited. The most common materials used in biocomposites are biofibers (also called natural fibers) and petroleum-based polymers such polypropylene. The use of renewable materials in biocomposites has increased in the past couple of decades owing to extensive research on cellulosic fibers and biopolymers based on starch or vegetable oil. Today, research is focused on reinforcing natural fibers in petroleum-based polymers. However, the emphasis is shifting toward the amount of renewable materials in biocomposites, which has led to the use of biopolymers instead of petroleum-based polymers in composites. The mechanical properties of some renewable resource-based composites are comparable to commercially available nonrenewable composites.

Several plant biofibers have been reinforced in thermoplastics or thermosets to manufacture biocomposites because of their specific properties. The Young's modulus of commonly used biofibers such as hemp and flax could be over 50 GPa and therefore they could be good alternatives to glass fibers in several applications. The good mechanical properties of these biofibers influence the composites' mechanical performance when reinforced in polymers. It is important to understand the mechanical performance of these biofibers and biocomposites in a working environment. A detailed discussion about the mechanical performance of commonly used biofibers and composites is provided in this chapter.

This study was conducted to improve the properties of thin films prepared from orange waste by the solution casting method. The main focus was the elimination of holes in the film structure by establishing better cohesion between the major cellulosic and pectin fractions. For this, a previously developed method was improved first by the addition of sugar to promote pectin gelling, then by the addition of maleic anhydride. Principally, maleic anhydride was introduced to the films to induce cross-linking within the film structure. The effects of concentrations of sugar and glycerol as plasticizers and maleic anhydride as a cross-linking agent on the film characteristics were studied. Maleic anhydride improved the structure, resulting in a uniform film, and morphology studies showed better adhesion between components. However, it did not act as a cross-linking agent, but rather as a compatibilizer. The middle level (0.78%) of maleic anhydride content resulted in the highest tensile strength (26.65 ± 3.20 MPa) at low (7%) glycerol and high (14%) sugar levels and the highest elongation (28.48% ± 4.34%) at high sugar and glycerol levels. To achieve a uniform film surface with no holes present, only the lowest (0.39%) level of maleic anhydride was necessary. 

This study was conducted to improve the properties of thin films prepared from orange waste by the solution casting method. The main focus was the elimination of holes in the film structure by establishing better cohesion between the major cellulosic and pectin fractions. For this, a previously developed method was improved first by the addition of sugar to promote pectin gelling, then by the addition of maleic anhydride. Principally, maleic anhydride was introduced to the films to induce cross-linking within the film structure. The effects of concentrations of sugar and glycerol as plasticizers and maleic anhydride as a cross-linking agent on the film characteristics were studied. Maleic anhydride improved the structure, resulting in a uniform film, and morphology studies showed better adhesion between components. However, it did not act as a cross-linking agent, but rather as a compatibilizer. The middle level (0.78%) of maleic anhydride content resulted in the highest tensile strength (26.65 +/- 3.20 MPa) at low (7%) glycerol and high (14%) sugar levels and the highest elongation (28.48% +/- 4.34%) at high sugar and glycerol levels. To achieve a uniform film surface with no holes present, only the lowest (0.39%) level of maleic anhydride was necessary.

Bioplastics can be defined as polymers derived partly or completely from biomass. Bioplastics can be biodegradable such as polylactic acid (PLA) and polyhydroxyalkonoates (PHA); or non-biodegradable (biobased polyethylene (bio-PE), polypropylene (bio-PP), polyethylene terephthalate (bio-PET)). The usage of such bioplastics is expected to increase in the future due to new found interest in sustainable materials. At the same time, these plastics become a new type of waste in the recycling stream. Most countries do not have separate bioplastics collection for it to be recycled or composted. After a brief introduction of bioplastics such as PLA in UK, these plastics are once again replaced by conventional plastics by many establishments due to lack of commercial composting. Recycling companies fear the contamination of conventional plastic in the recycling stream and they said they would have to invest in expensive new equipment to separate bioplastics and recycle it separately. Bioplastics are seen as a threat to the recycling industry as bioplastics may degrade during the mechanical recycling process and the properties of the recycled plastics are seriously impacted. This project studies what happens when bioplastics contaminate conventional plastics.

Three commonly used conventional plastics were selected for this study: polyethylene (PE), polypropylene (PP) and polyethylene terephthalate (PET). In order to simulate contamination, two biopolymers, either polyhydroxyalkanoate (PHA) or thermoplastic starch (TPS) were blended with the conventional polymers. The amount of bioplastics in conventional plastics was either 1% or 5%. The blended plastics were processed again to see the effect of degradation. Mechanical, thermal and morphological properties of these plastics were characterized.

The results from contamination showed that the tensile strength and the modulus of PE was almost unaffected whereas the elongation is clearly reduced indicating the increase in brittleness of the plastic. Generally, it can be said that PP is slightly more sensitive to the contamination than PE. This can be explained by the fact that the melting point of PP is higher than for PE and as a consequence, the biopolymer will degrade more quickly. However, the reduction of the tensile properties for PP is relatively modest. It is also important to notice that when plastics are recovered, there will always be a contamination that will reduce the material properties. The reduction of the tensile properties is not necessary larger than if a non-biodegradable polymer would have contaminated PE or PP. The Charpy impact strength is generally a more sensitive test method towards contamination. Again, PE is relatively unaffected by the contamination but for PP there is a relatively large reduction of the impact properties already at 1% contamination.

PET is polyester and it is by its very nature more sensitive to degradation than PE and PP. PET also have a much higher melting point than PE and PP and as a consequence the biopolymer will quickly degrade at the processing temperature of PET. As for the tensile strength, PET can tolerate 1% contamination without any reduction of the tensile strength. However, when the impact strength is examined, it is clear that already at 1% contamination, there is a strong reduction of the properties. It can also be seen that presence of TPS is more detrimental to PET than PHA is. This can be explained by the fact that TPS contain reactive hydroxyl groups that can react with the ester bond of PET. This will in other words lead to degradation of PET.

The thermal properties show the change in the crystallinity. As a general conclusion, it can be said that the plastics become less crystalline when contaminated. The blends were also characterized by SEM. Biphasic morphology can be seen as the two polymers are not truly blendable which also contributes to reduced mechanical properties. Recycling of the contaminated polymer shows an increase in crystallinity. This means that when the polymers are processed, polymer degradation occur causing the polymer chains to gradually become shorter which will enhance the crystallization process.

The study shows that PE is relatively robust againt contamination, while polypropylene (PP) is somewhat more sensitive and polyethylene terephthalate (PET) can be quite sensitive towards contamination.

Anaerobic digestion (AD) of the organic fraction of municipal solid waste (OFMSW), leading to renewableenergy production in the form of methane, is a preferable method for dealing with the increasing amountof waste. Food waste is separated at the source in many countries for anaerobic digestion. However, thepresence of plastic bags is a major challenge for such processes. This study investigated the anaerobicdegradability of different bioplastics, aiming at potential use as collecting bags for the OFMSW. Thechemical composition of the bioplastics and the microbial community structure in the AD processaffected the biodegradation of the bioplastics. Some biopolymers can be degraded at hydraulic retentiontimes usually applied at the biogas plants, such as poly(hydroxyalkanoate)s, starch, cellulose and pectin,so no possible contamination would occur. In the future, updated standardization of collecting bags forthe OFMSW will be required to meet the requirements of effective operation of a biogas plant.

Polyamides (PAs) are one of the most important engineering polymers; however, the difficulty in dissolving them hinders their applications. Formic acid (FA) is the most common solvent for PAs, but it has industrial limitations. In this contribution, we proposed a new solvent system for PAs by replacing a portion of the FA with urea and calcium chloride (FAUCa). Urea imparts the hydrogen bonding and calcium ion from the calcium chloride, as a Lewis acid was added to the system to compensate for the pH decrease due to the addition of urea. The results showed that the proposed solvent (FAUCa) could readily dissolve PAs, resulting in a less decrease in the mechanical properties during the dissolution. The composite prepared using the FAUCa has almost the same properties as the one prepared using the FA solution. The solution was applied on a polyamide 66 fabric to make an all-polyamide composite-coated fabric, which then was characterized. The FAUCa solution had a higher viscosity than the one prepared using the neat FA solvent, which can be an advantage in the applications which need higher viscosity like preparing the all-polyamide composite-coated fabric. A more viscous solution makes a denser coating which will increase the water /gas tightness. In conclusion, using the FAUCa solvent has two merits: (1) replacement of 40% of the FA with less harmful and environmentally friendly chemicals and (2) enabling for the preparation of more viscous solutions, which makes a denser coating.

One third of the cell wall of vascular plants is composed of pectin, which serves as the cementing material for the cellulosic network, behaving as a stabilized gel. Industrially, pectin is produced from juice and sugar production waste. Different sources and extraction conditions result in diversity in characteristics and applications of pectin. Most commonly, pectin is used in the food industry as a gelling and thickening agent and it is favored in the pharmaceutical industry as a carrier for colon-specific drugs. Pectin has good potential to be utilized as a matrix in production of environmentally friendly film packaging as well as biocomposite materials. Pectin is sensitive to chemical reactions and promotes the homogeneous immobilization of cells, genes, and proteins. However, due to limited mechanical properties pectin is not used for structural applications but instead rather for composites in which its biodegradable properties can be utilized. Pectin is often reinforced with hydroxyapatite and biphasic calcium phosphate for bone regeneration and tissue engineering applications. It can also be used as a biosorbent for copper removal from aqueous solutions. Active packaging of nanohybrids composed of pectin and halloysite nanotubes that are loaded with rosemary essential oil is another application of pectin-based composites.

This chapter focuses on physicochemical and mechanical characterization of compositesmade from renewable materials. Most common renewable materials used in composites arenatural fibers and polymers based on starch or vegetable oil. The extent of using renewablematerials in biocomposites has increased during the past decade due to extensive research oncellulosic fibers and biobased polymers. Earlier, the research was focused on using the naturalfibers as reinforcement in crude oil-based polymers such as polypropylene. Later, the emphasisshifted to increase the amount of renewable components in the biocomposites which led tothe introductionof biobased resins in the composites. The properties of some biocompositesare today comparable to the properties for commercially available nonrenewable composites.Several plant biofibers have been used as reinforcement in biobased thermoplastics or thermosetsto manufacture biocomposites. Material characterization is important to understand theperformance of these composites under specific environment. Detailed discussion about themechanical and physicochemical characterization is provided in this chapter. Physicochemicalcharacterization includes chemical composition, density, viscosity, molecular weight, meltingtemperature, crystallinity,morphology, wettability, surface tension, water binding capacity,electricalconductivity, flammability, thermal stability, and swelling. Mechanical characterizationincludes tensile, flexural, impact, compressive, shear, toughness, hardness, brittleness, ductility,creep, fatigue, and dynamic mechanical analysis.

While citrus waste is abundantly generated, the disposal methods used today remain unsatisfactory: they can be deleterious for ruminants, can cause soil salinity, or are not economically feasible; yet citrus waste consists of various valuable polymers. This paper introduces a novel environmentally safe approach that utilizes citrus waste polymers as a biobased and biodegradable film, for example, for food packaging. Orange waste has been investigated for biofilm production, using the gelling ability of pectin and the strength of cellulosic fibres. A casting method was used to form a film from the previously washed, dried, and milled orange waste. Two film-drying methods, a laboratory oven and an incubator shaker, were compared. FE-SEM images confirmed a smoother film morphology when the incubator shaker was used for drying. The tensile strength of the films was 31.67 ± 4.21 and 34.76 ± 2.64 MPa, respectively, for the oven-dried and incubator-dried films, which is within the range of different commodity plastics. Additionally, biodegradability of the films was confirmed under anaerobic conditions. Films showed an opaque appearance with yellowish colour.

Polylactic acid (PLA) was compounded with 30 wt% chalk and 5 wt% of a biobased plasticiser on a twin screw extruder. Mechanical recycling of the obtained compound was studied by multiple extrusions up to six cycles. The degradation was monitored by mechanical and thermal tests. Tensile and flexural tests did not reveal any major degradation after six cycles of processing. Characterising the material with differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) did not detect any significant change of the thermal properties. The material was also characterised by FTIR and, again, no significant change was detected. The material was finally characterised by melt flow index and by proton nuclear magnetic resonance (1H-NMR). Both tests revealed that some degradation had occurred. The 1H-NMR clearly showed that the chain length had been reduced. Also, the MFI test showed that degradation had occurred. However, the study reveals that PLA filled with chalk can be recycled by repeated extrusion for up to 6 cycles, without severe degradation. This should be of relevance when considering the end-of-life treatment of polymer products made from PLA.

A set of novel bio-based star-shaped thermoset resins was synthesized via ring-opening polymerization of lactide and employing different multi-hydroxyl core molecules, including ethylene glycol, glycerol, and erythritol. The branches were end-functionalized with methacrylic anhydride. The effect of the core molecule on the melt viscosity, the curing behavior of the thermosets and also, the thermomechanical properties of the cured resins were investigated. Resins were characterized by Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy, 13C-NMR, and 1H-NMR to confirm the chemical structure. Rheological analysis and differential scanning calorimetry analysis were performed to obtain the melt viscosity and the curing behavior of the studied star-shaped resins. Thermomechanical properties of the cured resins were also measured by dynamic mechanical analysis. The erythritol-based resin had superior thermomechanical properties compared to the other resins and also, lower melt viscosity compared to the glycerol-based resin. These are of desired characteristics for a resin, intended to be used as a matrix for the structural composites. Thermomechanical properties of the cured resins were also compared to a commercial unsaturated polyester resin and the experimental results indicated that erythritol-based resin with 82% bio-based content has superior thermomechanical properties, compared to the commercial polyester resin. Results of this study indicated that although core molecule with higher number of hydroxyl groups results in resins with better thermomechanical properties, number of hydroxyl groups is not the only governing factor for average molecular weight and melt viscosity of the uncured S-LA resins.

Novel all-polyamide composite (APC) has been developed to replace traditional coated fabrics with good interfacial adhesionand enhanced recyclability. The composite is fully recyclable since it contains no other materials except polyamide. APC was preparedby partially dissolving a polyamide fabric by treatment with a film-forming polyamide solution. The effect of the polyamidesolution concentration and gelling time on tensile and viscoelastic properties of APCs was investigated to explore the optimum processingparameters for balancing the good interfacial adhesion. The composite properties were studied by dynamic mechanical thermalanalysis (DMTA), tensile testing and scanning electron microscopy (SEM). The results showed a good adhesion between the coatingand the fabric. A new method was introduced to convert a low value added textile waste to a high value-added product. The compositeis tunable, in terms of having a dense or a porous top-layer depending on the end-use requirements.

Composites consisting of 30 vol% PLA and 70 vol% cellulose fibres were prepared with compression moulding. In the first part of the study, the recyclability of this composite material was investigated by grinding the material and using the recyclate obtained as a filler for PLA. Thus, the recyclate was compounded with PLA in loadings ranging from 20 to 50 wt%. The composites obtained were characterised by tensile tests, Charpy impact tests, DMTA, and SEM. Tests showed that the recyclate had a relatively good reinforcing effect. Stress at break increased from about 50 to 77 MPa and the modulus increased from 3.6 to 8.5 GPa. In the second part of the study, the ability to mechanically recycle the composites obtained was evaluated by repeated processing. Composite with two loadings of the recyclate (20 wt% and 50 %) was injection moulded repeatedly, six times. Tests showed that the composite material with 20 wt% recyclate could withstand six cycles relatively well, while the composite with the higher load degraded much more quickly. For the composites with 50 wt% recyclate, signs of polymer degradation could be seen already after reprocessing the composite once.

Resurser och hållbarhet är nära förknippade. Hållbarhet innebär att hushålla med resurser - materiella, miljömässiga och mänskliga. Och hushållning är per definition kärnan i ekonomi. Man börjar alltmer se framväxten av en hel arsenal av verktyg och förhållnings- och angreppssätt för att bygga hållbarhet. Detta förenas av ett synsätt att det som hitintills setts  om avfall och värdelöst, och rent utav besvärligt att ta hand om, nu blir en värdefull resurs. Det glömda och gömda kommer åter. Faktum är att många ord och begrepp kring detta börjar på just åter- eller re- . Internationellt talar man om Redesign, Recycling, Remake, Recycle, Recraft, Reuse, Recreate, Reclaim, Reduce, Repair, Refashion.

Vad är då allt detta? Ja, vill man dra det långt, är det inte mindre än framväxten av ett nyvunnet sätt att tänka, ja av en ny samhällssektor, en bransch och en industri,  sammanbundet av filosofin att återanvändningen, spillminskningen, vidarebruket, efterlivet anses som viktiga faktorer för ett miljömedvetet samhälle. Re: blir paraplytermen för detta. I denna antologi av forskare från skilda discipliner vid Högskolan i Borås lyfts ett antal av dessa begrepp inom Re: fram.

The development of new plant fibre composites is a key point in the development of semi-structural biodegradable or biobased parts, especially for automotive applications. The aim of this original and innovating work is to study, at different scales, the recycling ability of a fully biodegradable L-Poly-(lactide)-Poly-(butylene-succinate)-flax (PLLA-PBS-flax) biocomposite. The biocomposites were manufactured by twin-screw extrusion followed by injection moulding, then the recycling behaviour was studied during successive injection moulding cycles. Firstly, we investigated the length of the flax fibre after compounding and injection, as well as the cell wall stiffness and hardness, by in-situ nanoindentation tests. Secondly, we focused on the effects of recycling on thermal, rheological and tensile properties. We highlighted a severe evolution of the cell wall properties, especially concerning the polysaccharidic matrix after the first thermal cycle, nanoindentation properties remaining quasi-stable after this first drop. Furthermore, the biocomposites did not show any significant evolution of their mechanical performances during cycle three or four of the first injection cycles; after this plateau, the tensile strength and strain as well as impact energy were significantly altered due to the conjugated fibre length decrease and degradation of the PLLA, the latter being emphasized when the flax fibre is embedded. Nevertheless, this fully biodegradable composite exhibits a suitable recycling behaviour for 3 or 4 cycles, which is sufficient for industrial applications.

The mechanical recycling of high-density polyethylene (HDPE) reinforced with wood fiber was studied by means of repeated injection moulding. The change in properties during the recycling was monitored by tensile and flexural tests, Charpy impact tests, differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), FTIR spectroscopy, and by measuring the fiber lengths. Tests were also done where injection moulding was combined with subsequent accelerated thermo-oxidative ageing and thereafter repeated numerous times. The results showed that the HDPE composites were relatively stable toward both the ageing conditions and the repeated injection moulding. The change of the mechanical properties was mainly observed as an increased elongation at max. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 2016, 133, 43877. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Low viscosity thermoset bio-based resin was synthesised from lactic acid, allyl alcohol and pentaerythritol. The resin was impregnated into cellulosic fibre reinforcement from flax and basalt and then compression moulded at elevated temperature to produce thermoset composites. The mechanical properties of composites were characterised by flexural, tensile and Charpy impact testing whereas the thermal properties were analysed by dynamic mechanical thermal analysis (DMTA) and thermogravimetric analysis (TGA). The results showed a decrease in mechanical properties with increase in fibre load after 40 wt.% for the neat flax composite due to insufficient fibre wetting and an increase in mechanical properties with increase fibre load up to 60 wt.% for the flax/basalt composite. The results of the ageing test showed that the mechanical properties of the composites deteriorate with ageing; however, the flax/basalt composite had better mechanical properties after ageing than the flax composite before ageing.

Mekanisk återvinning av biopolymerer och deras blandningar och kompositer

Biopolymerer blir allt vanligare på marknaden. Det är därför viktigt att utveckla återvinningssystem för att ta hand om dessa nya plaster. I ett pågående projekt, ’Hållbar återvinning av ”gröna” plaster och industriellt avfall’ studeras mekanisk återvinning av bioplaster. Återvinning av polymjölksyra (PLA) samt blandningar och kompositer av PLA har studerats genom upprepad bearbetning. Delar av dessa resultat kommer att presenteras.

Novel lightweight and highly thermal insulative aerogel-doped poly(vinyl chloride)-coated fabric composites wereprepared on woven fabrics made of polyester fibres using knife coating method, and their performances were comparedwith neat composite. The composites were prepared by incorporating a commercial aerogel to a ‘green’ poly(vinylchloride) (PVC) plastisol. The effect of aerogel-content, thermal insulating property, thermal degradation, surface characteristics,tensile and physical properties of the composites were investigated. Results revealed that aerogel couldreduce thermal conductivity, density and hydrophilicity of the composites dramatically without significant decrease inother properties. Experimental results showed that thermal insulation properties were enhanced by 26% (from 205 to152 mW/m-K), density decreased by 17% (from 1.132 to 0.941 g/cm3) and hydrophobicity increased by 16.4% (from76.02 to 88.671.48) with respect to the unmodified coated fabric. Analyses proved that composite with 3% aerogel isthe lightest by weight, while 4% showed the highest thermal insulation. The results showed that 4% is the criticalpercentage, and preparation of composites with aerogel content higher than 4% has limitations with the given formulationdue to high viscosity of plastisol. The prepared composite has potential applications in many fields such asdevelopment of textile bioreactors for ethanol/biogas production from waste materials, temporary houses and tents,facade coverings, container linings and tarpaulins. The prepared composite can be considered ‘green’ due to usage of anon-phthalate environment-friendly plasticiser.

An experimental study was carried out to investigate the effects of a titanate coupling agent on the mechanical properties, moisture absorption, and thermal conductivity of talc-filled high-density polyethylene (HDPE). Talc (0–35 wt %) was used as reinforcement particulate filler in an HDPE matrix and samples were prepared in a micro-compounder and an injection molding machine. Isopropyl tri(dioctyl)phosphate titanate (0.5 wt %) was used as coupling agent. Composites with and without coupling agent were evaluated for changes in mechanical and thermo-physical properties, morphology, and void content. Addition of the titanate coupling agent most often resulted in an increase in stiffness and tensile strength. Furthermore, both the void content and the elongation at break of composites were reduced. Results also showed that the coupling agent had no effects on the thermal conductivity, thermal diffusivity, and specific heat capacity of the composites. In addition, it was observed that the coupling agent was more effective at low concentrations of filler. © 2014 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 2014, 131, 40449.

Regenerated cellulose fibers were used to produce thermoset composites from a bio-based thermoset resin synthesized from lactic acid and glycerol. The resin was impregnated into the regenerated cellulose fiber and compression molded at elevated temperature to produce thermoset composites. Different fiber alignments (unidirectional and bidirectional), different reinforcement type (warp-knitted and non-woven) and varying fiber loading (65, 70 and 75 wt%) were investigated. The composites were characterized by flexural, tensile and Charpy impact testing and by dynamical mechanical thermal analysis. Water uptake and ageing properties in climate chamber were also characterized for the composites. The results showed that the composites had good mechanical properties. They can be produced with up to 70 wt% fiber content when using unidirectional (UD) and bidirectional fiber (BD) alignment, and with up to 65 wt% fiber content when using the non-woven (NW) reinforcement. The tensile modulus ranged between 11 and 14 GPa for UD composites, 7 and 8.5 GPa for BD composites and 5 and 7.5 GPa for NW composites. The flexural modulus ranged between 10 and 11.5 GPa for UD composites, 5 and 6.5 GPa for BD composites and 5 and 6 GPa for NW composites. The impact strength ranged between 130 and 150 kJ/m2 for UD composites, 98 and 110 kJ/m2 for BD composites and 17 and 20 kJ/m2 for NW composites. The result of the ageing test showed that the mechanical properties of the composites deteriorate with ageing but the addition of styrene somewhat counteracts the degradation, making the composite applicable for indoor use.

Biopolymers are becoming increasingly popular and may help reduce oil dependency. As a result, industries’ attentions have been directed towards polylactic acid (PLA) which combines the advantages of being renewable and biodegradable resources at the same time. The upward trend of the bioplastics and biocomposites usage among consumers could have great consequence for the recycled plastics industry in the next few decades. While the mechanical recycling of many of the traditional, petro-based polymers have been studied in detail, bio-based polymers still need to be better characterized. The mechanical recycling of neat PLA has previously studied and tests show that it is possible to process PLA several times without significant loss of mechanical properties. However, commercial plastics are often used with some kind of filler. Due to the low production cost of chalk (mainly consisting of CaCO3) it is often added to commercial polymers. PLA can be filled with chalk and other fillers in order to improve the toughness and lowering the cost. The purpose of this project was to investigate the mechanical recycling of PLA compounded with chalk. PLA was compounded with 30 wt-% chalk and 5 wt-% plasticizer using a twin screw extruder. The mechanical recycling was simulated by multiple extrusion. Samples for mechanical testing were prepared by compress molding. The prepared compound was recycled up to 6 times by multiple extrusion. The mechanical and thermal properties were characterized after each cycle by TGA, DSC, DMTA, FTIR and tensile tests.

The increased environmental awareness has drawn researchers’ attention to bio-based polymers and several polymers such as polylactic acid (PLA), Mater-bi and polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHA) have been studied extensively. It is not easy to replace conventional petro-based polymers and it is therefore likely that both petro- and bio-based polymers will coexists for a long time. The usage of bio-based polymers is however growing and this may have implications for the plastic recycling industry. The recycling of petro-based polymers is relatively well studied and, where it is cost effective, conventional, petro-based polymers are being recycled in the industry. However, the recycling of bio-based plastics and composites needs to be studied more in detail. While several bio-based polymers can be biologically degraded, it is of interest to study the mechanical recycling of these polymers. In order to minimize the energy usage and the consumption of renewable materials mechanical recycling can be a good option. PLA is an attractive polymer as it is both biodegradable and prepared from renewable materials. This polymer has received a lot of attention and several reviews have been written. Research has shown that neat PLA can be reprocessed several times without significant loss of mechanical properties. Biocomposites based on PLA reinforced with natural fibres have been studied extensively in the literature and there can be many industrial applications of these biocomposites, such as automotive components and materials for construction applications. However, the mechanical recycling of biocomposites is not well studied. Most studies in the literature concerns the recycling of polymers reinforced with wood flour. DuraPulp is a commercial quality consisting PLA fibres mixed with cellulose fibres. This biocomposite material can be processed with for example compression moulding. Adding cellulose fibres to the polymer matrix may significantly change how the material can be recycled. The purpose of this study was to study the mechanical recycling of this material. Sheets were first prepared from Durapulp. The sheets were then compression moulded, grinded and reprocessed again with compression moulding. The mechanical and thermal properties were characterized after each cycle. The feasibility to recycle Durapulp mechanically will be discussed.

The upward trend of the bioplastics and biocomposites usage among consumers could have great consequence for the recycled plastics industry in the next few decades. As a result,industries’ attentions have been directed towards Poly Lactic Acid (PLA) which combines the advantages of renewable and biodegradable resources at the same time. Since PLA is more environmentally friendly compared to traditional petroleum-based commodity polymers, it has benefited from an upturned trend of interest in different markets, like the packaging, textile, and automotive industries. However, it is not applicable in many fields due to its inherent brittleness; even though it is very beneficial as the result of high strength and high modulus. Due to the low production cost of Nano calcium carbonate (nano-CaCO3) (NCC) which is useful to improve the toughness of PLA, it has reached a wide market in such industries as plastics, paints, and inks. By adding Nano calcium carbonate to polymer, thermal,crystallization, mechanical, biodegradability and melt rheological properties will be improved. The mechanical recycling of neat PLA has previously studied as well as some research on blend PLA/NCC by Sabzi et al. However, the purpose of this project is to investigate the characterization of PLA blend with Chalk (CaCo3) and Plasticizer by focusing on thermaland mechanical properties. The filler, which is 30% calcium carbonate, and 5% plasticizer compound with PLA in a two screws extruder. Plasticizer is added to composite to make it softer and it is consider constant in all samples. Multiple extrusions and compress molding are methods which can help in studying the recyclability of polymeric materials containing bioplastic and its derivatives and in figuring out the stability or service life respectively. In addition, these methods make it possible to determine the impacts of thermal and thermo mechanical degradation. Bio composite was recycled up to 6 times by using extruder equipment and crushing. The mechanical and thermal properties were characterized after each cycle by TGA, DSC,DMTA, FTIR, tensile machine and flexural test. The study represents that by introducing 30% calcium carbonate to PLA, it can be recycled up to 6 times without meeting any significant change in the mechanical and thermal properties.

A bio-based thermoset resin has been synthesized from glycerol reacted with lactic acid oligomers of three different chain lengths: n=3, 7 and 10. Lactic acid was first reacted with glycerol by direct condensation and the resulted branched molecule was then end-functionalized with methacrylic anhydride. The resins were characterized using FTIR, 13C-NMR spectroscopy to confirm the resins chemical structure and by DSC and DMTA to obtain the thermal properties. The resin flow viscosities were also measured using a Rheometer with different stress levels for each temperature used, as this is an important characteristic for resins which are intended to be used as a matrix in composite applications. The results showed that the resin with chain length n=3 have a better mechanical, thermal and rheological properties than resin with n=7 and 10. Also with its biobased content of 78% and glass transition temperature at 97°C makes it comparable with the commercial unsaturated polyester resins.

Bio-based thermoset resins have been synthesized using lactic acid oligomers, which were functionalized with carbon–carbon double bonds, in order to allow their crosslinking by a free radical mechanism. Two different resin structures were synthesized. One resin was composed of an allyl alcohol terminated lactic acid oligomer, which was end-functionalized with methacrylic anhydride (MLA resin). The second resin was a mixture of the same allyl alcohol-lactic acid oligomer, and penthaerythritol. This mixture was end-functionalized with methacrylic anhydride, in order to get a methacrylate functionalized lactic acid oligomer, and methacrylate functionalized penthaerythritol (PMLA resin). The synthesized resins were characterized using FT-IR, 1H NMR and 13C NMR spectroscopy, differential scanning calorimetry as well as dynamic mechanical analysis to confirm the resin structure and reactivity. The flow viscosities were also measured in order to evaluate the suitability of the resins to be used as a matrix in composite applications. The results showed that the PMLA resin has better mechanical, thermal and rheological properties than the MLA resin, and both had properties which were comparable with a commercial unsaturated polyester resin. The high biobased content of 90% and the high glass transition temperature at 100 °C for the PMLA resin makes it an attractive candidate for composite applications where crude oil based unsaturated polyester resins are normally used.

Glass fibre composites were recycled by microwave pyrolysis. The glass fibres recovered were evaluated as a reinforcement agent for polypropylene (PP). Samples were prepared with a micro-compounder and the resulting compounds were evaluated with tensile testing, flexural testing, Charpy impact testing and scanning electron microscopy (SEM). The adhesion between fibre and glass was relatively poor, and an attempt was made to improve it. Various coupling agents were evaluated, in addition to the use of maleic anhydride-grafted PP (MA-PP). Tests showed that MA-PP had a relatively strong effect on the mechanical properties.

The possibility to obtain useful products from used glass fiber-reinforced composites using microwave pyrolysis were examined. A scrap of blade from a wind turbine was fragmented and microwave-pyrolysed. The oil and gas formed during the pyrolysis were characterized by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS). The oil from pyrolysis consisted mainly of various aromatic compounds and had an energy content of about 36 MJ/kg. The main component of the gaseous products was methane. The glass fiber recovered after pyrolysis represented 70 % of the initial mass of glass fiber-reinforced plastic.

The possibility of recycling glass fibre-reinforced composites by using microwave pyrolysis was examined. A scrap blade from a wind turbine was fragmented and microwave-pyrolysed. The glass fibre recovered after pyrolysis represented 70% of the initial mass of glass fibre-reinforced composites. The tensile strength of the glass fibre recovered was measured after pyrolysis and compared to the tensile strength of untreated glass fibre. The test showed that the fibres lost about 25% of their tenacity. Non-woven fibre mats were prepared from the recovered fibres. Laminates were then prepared from the non-woven mats obtained, together with virgin glass fibre mats. Mechanical testing of the laminates showed that it is possible to prepare composites using 25 wt% of recycled fibres, with relatively good mechanical properties.

Wind turbine blades made of composite materials at the end of their life cycle become the waste very difficult for final utilization. There are three possible routes for dismantled wind mill wings: landfill, incineration or recycling. In the paper the method of recycling of waste glass fiber reinforced plastic, coming from used wind turbine blades with microwave pyrolysis is described. Microwave pyrolysis of the fragmented blade from a wind mill blades were carried out at 300 to 600ºC in nitrogen atmosphere in special reactor at Stena AG facilities. The pyrolysis generated gas, oil and recovered glass fibres. The hydrocarbon pyrolysis products were analysed in terms of chemical composition and energy content while the recovered glass fibres were used to produce new thermoset composites. Further developments on pilot plants are in progress.

Jute yarn reinforced polypropylene commingled composites were prepared by an environmentally benign technique called commingling method in which the matrix fibres and reinforcing fibres are intermingled together with good alignment. The dynamic mechanical properties or viscoelastic behaviour of these commingled composites were studied with reference to fibre content and various chemical treatments. The storage and loss modulus increased with fibre content where as tan δ decreased. KMnO4 and MAPP treated composites showed much higher storage and loss modulus values at all temperatures compared to untreated one. The glass transition temperature showed a marginal increasing tendency with fibre content and chemical treatments. The surface treatment mechanisms were supported by FT-IR spectra and the increase in interfacial adhesion after chemical treatments were supported by SEM images. Theoretical modelling was used to predict the values of storage modulus and tan δ and was found to be comparable with that of experimentally obtained results.

Bio-nanocomposites are a new class of particle-based composites that have attracted much attention due to their environmental and economic advantages these years [1, 2]. In this study a biobased thermoset resin based on lactic acid was used and reinforced with montmorillonite (MMT). This resin consists of star-shaped oligomers of lactic acid, end-capped with methacrylate groups [3]. Thus, the resin can be cross-linked by a free radical polymerization. MMT consists of 1 nm thick aluminosilicate layers. Due to the high surface area, MMT has been evaluated as a reinforcement for several commercial polymers. While most commercial resins are non-polar, MMT is intrinsically polar. Therefore, MMT is usually surface treated in order to make it less polar. However, the resin used in this study is relatively polar and the purpose of this study was to evaluate if untreated MMT could be used to reinforce this resin. The curing was studied with isothermal differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) and the obtained composite were characterized by dynamic-mechanical thermal analysis (DMTA). Also transmission electronic spectroscopy (TEM) was used to characterize the structure. The result showed some improvements in mechanical properties. The DMTA results showed that the storage modulus and also loss modulus of the nanocomposite improved with respect to neat resin. Intercalated structures could be seen from the TEM micrographs.

In this study bio-nanocomposites were manufactured, using a thermoset resin based on lactic acid and nanoclay (montmorillonite) as a matrix for flax fibers. The obtained composites were characterized by dynamic-mechanical thermal analysis (DMTA) and flexural testing. The aim of this study was to evaluate the mechanical properties of bio-nanocomposites without any surface treatment of the nanoclay and to use the resin/clay blend as a matrix for natural fiber composite. Results showed the nanoclay improved the mechanical properties.

Polymers are typically produced from crude oil which is a non-renewable resource. With the fast depletion of the petroleum resources, the development of materials based on renewable resources is becoming important. Polymers prepared from renewable resources are under development, but has mainly focused on thermoplastic polymers such as polylactic acid. For some applications, such as composites and coatings, thermoset polymers are often preferred. Consequently, it is important to develop thermoset resins from renewable resources as well. Plant oils, such as soybean oil and linseed oil, have been utilized by mankind for a long time. Soybean oil is produced in large quantities and soybean oil is an excellent starting material for the synthesis of thermoset resins. A possible strategy to prepare thermoset resins from plant oils is to introduce pendant methacrylate groups in the structure. Thus, the resins can be cured by a free radical polymerization. Such a resin is very susceptible to photopolymerization when exposed to ultraviolet (UV) radiation, which is a common technique to cure coatings. In the present study, three different thermoset resins were studied. Two of the resins were based on soybean oil while the third resin was based on lactic acid. The latter resin was prepared by a direct condensation of lactic acid and pentaerythritol and was finally end-capped with methacrylate groups. Several authors have studied the addition of nano-reinforcements to thermoset resins. One of the most promising nano-reinforcements is layered silicate which has shown to improve several properties. Layered silicate has been used to reinforce conventional resins with good results. The addition of layered silicates to the biobased resins can be used to improve the properties and to broaden the applications. The resins used in this study were therefore reinforced with layered silicate and UV-cured. The cured resins were characterized by Soxhlet extraction, photo-FTIR, DMTA and tensile tests which will be presented during the presentation.

A scrap blade from a wind turbine was microwave pyrolysed. The recovered glass fibres were characterised by SEM and TGA. The possibility to use the fibres to prepare new composites were evaluated. Laminates were prepared where fibres mats with virgin and recovered glass fibres were altered. Mechanical testing showed that it is possible to prepapare composite with up to 35 wt.-% recovered fibre without losing too much of the mechanical properties.

Biobased composites were manufactured with a compression-molding technique. Novel thermoset resins from soybean oil were used as a matrix, and flax fibers were used as reinforcements. The air-laid fibers were stacked randomly, the woven fabrics were stacked crosswise (0/90 ), and impregnation was performed manually. The fiber/resin ratio was 60 : 40. The prepared biobased composites were characterized by impact and flexural testing. Scanning electron microscopy of knife-cut cross sections of the specimens was also done to investigate the fiber–matrix interface. Thermogravimetric analysis of the composites was carried out to provide indications of thermal stability. Three resins from soybean oil [methacrylated soybean oil, methacrylic anhydride modified soybean oil (MMSO), and acetic anhydride modified soybean oil] were used as matrices. The impact strength of the composites with MMSO resin reinforced with air-laid flax fibers was 24 kJ/m2, whereas that of the MMSO resin reinforced with woven flax fabric was between 24 and 29 kJ/m2. The flexural strength of the MMSO resin reinforced with air-laid flax fibers was between 83 and 118 MPa, and the flexural modulus was between 4 and 6 GPa, whereas the flexural strength of the MMSO resin reinforced with woven fabric was between 90 and 110 MPa, and the flexural modulus was between 4.87 and 6.1 GPa.

Abstract Thermoset composites were produced from flax fibers and a novel lactic acid (LA)-based thermoset resin. This resin is based on methacrylated, star-shaped oligomers of LA. The main purpose of this work was to evaluate whether this resin can be used to produce structural composites from flax fibers. Composites were prepared by spray impregnation followed by compression molding at elevated temperature. The tests showed that composites can be produced with as much as 70 wt% fiber. The composites were evaluated by tensile testing, flexural testing, charpy impact test, dynamic mechanical thermal analysis (DMTA), and low-vacuum scanning electron microscopy. The ageing properties in high humid conditions were evaluated, the Young's modulus ranged from 3 GPa to 9 GPa in the best case. This work shows that structural composites can be produced from renewable material. It is clear from the results that these composites have properties that make them suitable for furniture, panels, or automotive parts.

Biobased composites were manufactured by using a compression moulding technique. Novel thermoset resins from soybean oil were used as matrix while flax fibres were used as reinforcement. The airlaid fibres were stacked randomly while woven fabrics were stacked crosswisely (90°) and impregnation was done manually. The fibre/ resin ratio was 60% to 40%.

Health related issues, stringent environmental protection policies, search for cost effective and alternative materials, crave for renewability and sustainability and quest for high performance materials for structural applications give the motivation for research in polymer composites and material science. Due to the health, safety and environmental concerns over the conventional synthetic materials and the legislation against their usage both in domestic and industrial applications, alternatives sources that will be comparable in properties are being sought. There is an emerging market for biodegradable polymers which is expected to increase substantially in the coming years.[1] Preparation of Composites Airlaid and woven flax fibre mats were first treated with 4% sodium hydroxide solution for one hour and then washed with plenty of water. This was done in order to remove any residual impurities. The fibres were dried at room temperature for 24 hr and then dried in a vacuum oven for 1hr at a temperature of 105°С. The 8 sheets of the fibre were hand laid cross- wisely and the impregnation was done manually. The fibre/ resin ratio was about 60% to 40%. Methacrylated soybean oil, methacrylic anhydride and acetic anhydride modified soybean oil were the synthesized matrices used. The compression moulding was done at a temperature of 170°С for 5 min at 40bar. Characterisations The tensile testing was performed based on an ISO-test method for tensile tests on plastic materials. The Charpy impact strength of unnotched specimens was evaluated in accordance with ISO 179 using a Zwick test instrument and scanning electron microscopy analysis was done on the fractured specimens. The composites showed various mechanical properties, having impact strengths between 24 and 63 kJ/m² and tensile strength up to 51MPa.

Biobased thermoset resins were irradiated with utraviolet(UV) radiation in the presence of photoinitiators. Three different resins were evaluated-two resins were based on soybean oil and one was based on lactic acid. The cross-linking behaviour of these resins was characterized by real-time FTIR and Soxhlet extraction. All of the resins cured rapidly and formed rigid materials with a high degree of conversion. The cross-linked resins were characterized by mechanical testing, thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) as well as dynamic-mechanical thermal analysis (DMTA). The resins were reinforced with layered silicate, in order to form nanocomposite Structures. The resulting composites were characterized by DMTA and tensile testing. (C) 2009 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Structural composites with a high content of renewable material were produced from natural fibres and an acrylated epoxidized soybean oil resin. Composites were prepared by spray impregnation followed by compression moulding at elevated temperature. The resulting composites good mechanical properties in terms of tensile strength flexural strength. Tensile testing as well as dynamical :hanical thermal analysis showed that increasing the e content, increased the mechanical properties. The resin be reinforced with up to 70 wt % fibre without sacrifice in processability. The tensile modulus ranged between 5.8 and 9.7 GPa depending on the type of fibre mat. The study of the adhesion by low vacuum scanning electron microscopy shows that the fibres are well impregnated in the matrix. The aging properties were finally evaluated. This study shows that composites with a very high content of renewable constituents can be produced from soy bean oil resins and natural fibres.

In our efforts to create a more sustainable society, several researchers have tried to prepare composites from renewable materials in recent years. The use of natural fibres for reinforcement of composites has been relatively well studied. To date, most studies of natural fibre-reinforced composites have either involved the use of conventional thermoset resins or thermoplastic biopolymers. While there are currently several thermoplastic polymers on the market that are produced from renewable resources, thermosets are inevitably produced from petroleum resources. The development of biobased thermoset resins is therefore of considerable importance. Such resins could be used in future for composite applications, for coating applications or in adhesives. This thesis describes the development of biobased thermoset resins for composite applications. Thermoset resins were synthesised from both epoxidised soybean oils as well as from lactic acid. These resins have been characterised neat as well as together with various reinforcements. The main objective has been to study these biobased resins together with natural fibres for reinforcement, though to some extent nano-reinforcements and glass fibres have also been used as reinforcements. Natural fibre-reinforced composites were prepared from several different biobased thermoset resins. Resins based on soybean oil as well as a resin based on lactic acid were evaluated. The soybean resins were prepared by introducing acrylate or methacrylate groups into the molecules of soybean oil. The second type of thermoset resin used was based on lactic acid. This resin consists of star-shaped methacrylated oligomers of lactic acid. Natural fibres were impregnated by several impregnation techniques. Composites were prepared from the biobased resins together with various natural fibres, such as flax and hemp fibres. The resulting composites were evaluated by tensile testing, flexural testing, impact testing, DMTA and SEM. The results show that composites prepared from biobased resin have relatively good mechanical properties and can be used for indoor applications such as furniture and construction elements.

A new biobased polyester resin was developed for thermoset composite applications. The resin is potentially inexpensive and can be produced industrially by relatively simple means. The resin consists of star-shaped methacrylated oligomers of lactic acid (LA). LA oligomers were synthesized in a two-step process: in the first step, oligomers of LA were polymerized by direct condensation of LA. In the second step, the oligomers were end-functionalized by methacrylic anhydride. The resin was characterized by differential scanning calorimetry, Raman spectroscopy, NMR, rubber process analyzer, and TOF-SIMS. Tests show that the resin can be crosslinked into a rigid network within a couple of minutes upon thermal initiation. (C) 2009 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Appl Polym Sci 115: 480-486, 2010

Biobased thermosets resins were synthesized by functionalizing the triglycerides of epoxidized soybean oil with methacrylic acid, acetyl anhydride, and methacrylic anhydride. The obtained resins were characterized with FTIR, 1H-NMR, and 13C-NMR spectroscopy to confirm the functionalization reactions and the extent of epoxy conversion. The viscosities of the methacrylated soybean oil resins were also measured for the purpose of being used as a matrix in composite applications. The cross-linking capability was estimated by UV and thermally initiated curing experiments, and by DSC analysis regarding the degree of crosslinking. The modifications were successful because up to 97% conversion of epoxy group were achieved leaving only 2.2% of unreacted epoxy groups, which was confirmed by 1H-NMR. The 13C-NMR confirms the ratio of acetate to methacrylate methyl group to be 1 : 1. The viscosities of the methacrylated soybean oil (MSO) and methacrylic anhydride modified soybean oil (MMSO) were 0.2 and 0.48 Pas, respectively, which indicates that they can be used in resin transfer molding process.

With the aim of producing composites from renewable materials for the furniture industry, a number of thermoset prepregs were manufactured and evaluated. The applicability of two different biobased thermoset resins was evaluated. The first resin is based on soybean oil and the second on lactic acid. Both resins are cross-linkable and produced from renewable resources. Prepregs were manufactured from the two resins together with natural fibres (flax and cellulose). Furthermore, sheet moulding compound (SMC) was developed from lactic acid based resin together with glass fibre. Seat shells were produced from the prepregs by compression moulding. Curing of the composites was monitored using a response surface methodology. Further, the fibre ratio, mechanical properties as well as adhesion between the matrix and the fibre were evaluated. These prepregs offers short cycle times and yield products with suitable mechanical properties. Issues related to the preparation and the processing of the prepregs are discussed in the article.